India Golden Period
By: Manoj Patil
India Golden Period (200BCE-500CE) Introduction
India Golden Period (200BCE-500CE) Introduction
The period from 200BCE to 500CE was the most opulent and prosperous in India’s history. Through there were occasional incursions from the northwest, the country at large was quiet and peaceful. There was religious harmony and major religions operated as equals in the country. Professional guilds existed and artisan schools produced motivated workers who took Indian art to new heights. Pottery, jewelry, textiles silk and spices were exported and there was rich commercial trade between India, Persia Middle East and Far East.
Large educational centers in India attracted students from countries as far as Greece. Intellectual atmosphere was strong with healthy debates and analytic discussions. Takhashila was the largest educational institution in the world (Figure 1). Buddhist pilgrims were coming from China and were instrumental in recording massive Indian texts in different scripts. Cave dwellings and meditation centers for the monks were built. Beautiful frescoes and art work at Ajanta and Ellora caves were produced (Figure 2). Stone carvings, monuments and inscriptions signify the engineering excellence. Medicinal treatment using herbs and nature cure was standardized. The techniques were exported widely.
Figure 1. Ruins of Takshashila University (500BCE-400CE)
Figure 2. A Fresco from Ajanta caves (100CE to 600CE)
Massive literary works were produced that included epics, dramas, story books and religious scriptures. Scholarly philosophical analysis led to theories of mind, speech, melody and music. Texts in dance, drama and music were standardized. Texts on geometry and mathematics were produced. Astronomical observations were sharpened with accurate predictions of celestial phenomena. The observation of the westward rotation of the earth was reported. Heliocentric theory of the cosmos replaced the earth-centered calculations. Decimal representation was formulated and was instituted.
Analytic religious literature developed through the traditional Vedic systems and the newly developed Buddhist and Jaina systems. Speculations on the theories of life dealt with rebirth, liberation, punishment and atonement. Scholars in different parts of the country offered detailed explanations and helped to solidify their religious base. Though there was no state religion, the royalty supported scholars with official stipends and pensions. Large scale religious festivals were held and served as occasions of social gathering, artistic exploration and trade.
There was extensive use of iron in construction, tool making, carpentry and stone carving. Rock-cut temples exhibit the skills and diligence of the artisans. Large boats carried goods in profitable marine trade. Indian culture did extend out to the Far East and gradual settlements occurred in the far-away lands. Cultural homogeneity developed from Persia to Cambodia and from Kashmir to Sri Lanka, forming the extended domain of Indian culture. A twenty-three feet tall solid iron pillar in Delhi exhibits the engineering excellence of the period.
Figure 3. Iron Pillar in Delhi (400CE)
References:
1. The Wonder that was India – A.L.Basham, 1954
2. History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century – Upinder Singh, 2009
3. Our Oriental Heritage: The Story of Civilization, Volume 1,Will Durrant, 1935.
Dr. Bijoy Misra serves as the President of India Discovery Center and compiles the project on "Evolution of Indian Culture: Pre-history to 1947AD"
More information and updates on the project are available at https://www.facebook.com/Evolution-of-Indian-Culture-An-IDC-Project-107749391111922
More information on India Discovery Center is available at https://www.indiadiscoverycenter.org
India Golden Period (200 B.C – 500 A.D) Geography and People
Soon after Ashoka died, his Buddhist leanings and pacific policy evoked open resistance. Greeks invaded India and advanced into the country up to Ayodhya and Chitor. Further disintegration was halted only when Pushyamitra (187-151 B.C), the Brahmana minister of Sunga dynasty took over. In the south and south-east, the Andhras and Kalingas, together with parts of northern India had already asserted their independence. Pushyamitra ultimately triumphed over the Greeks and drove them out of Magadha, perhaps even beyond the Sindhu. (Figure 1)
Figure 1. Sunga Empire, 185BCE
The foreign Kushana power, which held sway over nearly the whole of North India as also considerable territory beyond, as far as Central Asia, shifted the center of political gravity from Patliputra to Peshawar. Kanishka, the founder of the Kushan Empire (78-101 A.D.) was a devout Buddhist and his son and successor followed the Vedic system. Kanishka was the greatest of the Kushan emperors. His empire seems to have stretched from Bihar in the east to Khorasan in the west, and from Khotan in the north to the Konkan in the south (Figure 2) The period witnessed important developments in religion, literature, and sculpture, Gandharan art and the appearance of the image of Buddha. It was a period of religious ferment and missionary activity.
Figure 2. Kushana build up, 100CE.
The period witnessed the development of Shaivism and Mahayana Buddhism and the introduction of Buddhism in China (61-67 A.D0). Takshashila (Taxila) university flourished drawing students from all around the world. (Figure 3) The Kushana empire disintegrated by the middle of the second century of the C.E. Many governors of provinces in Western and Central India declared independence. Saka Satraps ruled considerable parts of western India as independent rulers. The Andhra king of the Satavahana dynasty, Gautamiputra (106-130 A.D) extended his sway from Ujjain to Krishna river and from coast to coast, claiming suzerainty over the whole of Vindhyan region. He vanquished the Scythians, the Indo Greeks and the Parthians. His descendants eliminated the Sakas from Western India and Saurashtra completely.
Figure 3. Takshashila University (an artist’s reconstruction), world’s oldest university.
The literary and epigraphic texts of ancient India often refer to Sakas (Scythians) and the Pahlavas (Parthians), together with Yavanas and indicate that they soon adapted themselves to their new environs and began to adopt Indian names and religious beliefs. They are also known to have contracted matrimonial relationships with Indian families. The frescoes and the structures in Ajanta Caves help us reconstruct the religious life diring the period (Figure 4). The political disintegration following the dissolution of the Kushana empire continued right up to the beginning of the fourth century A.D. The Kushanas still ruled over western Punjab but had ceased to exercise any authority further east. The Sakas ruled over Gujarat and parts of Malwa but their power was rapidly on the decline. The rest of India was divided into several smaller kingdoms and autonomous tribal states. The time was ripe for a real Indian military leader to arise and build up a mighty empire and such a leader soon rose in a petty ruling family known as the Guptas.
Figure 4. Residence and courtyard in Ajanta Caves (200AD)
The Gupta Empire founded by Chandra Gupta I around 250 A.D ensured peace and prosperity to the people (Figure 5.). The intellectual greatness which characterized the Gupta Age was typified in the University of Nalanda, the symbol of the great international culture of which India was the universally acknowledged center (Figure 6). The country was populated with self-contained population centers that maintained trade and economic relations between them. The tax system was federated helping to support a creative life for all sectors in the society. The village as an independent unit functioned well for agriculture, craftsmanship, art, culture, and education operating in professional “guilds.” Families living together as tribes, multiple tribes forming clans and migration of these tribes and clans to cities triggered process of urbanization which intensified the use of coin currency.
Figure 5. Gupta empire in India (400AD).
Figure 6. Ruins of Nalanda University
Though India’s contact with the outside world was established since prehistoric and proto-historic time, there was expansion of Indian culture and influence in Central and southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands during this period. Flourishing “Hindu” states arose in Burma, Siam, Malayan Peninsula, Annam, Cambodia, Sumatra, Java, Bali, and Borneo.
References:
The Wonder That Was India, A. L. Basham
India As Known to Panini – https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4695
History & Culture of Indian People, Classical Age, Vol. 2, Published by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
Ancient Geography of India, Alexander Cunningham
Our Indian Heritage – Will Durrant, The Story of Civilization Vol 1.
Dr. Hemendra Acharya is a co-leader in Geography and People track in the project on "Evolution of Indian Culture: Pre-history to 1947AD"
More information and updates on the project are available at https://www.facebook.com/Evolution-of-Indian-Culture-An-IDC-Project-107749391111922
More information on India Discovery Center is available at https://www.indiadiscoverycenter.org
India Golden Period (200BCE-500AD) – Economy and Politics
India Golden Period (200BCE-500AD) – Economy And Politics
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Hardik Dixit
07/08/2021
India Golden Period (200BCE-500AD) – Economy and Politics
Various kingdoms flourished during this time (Figure 1). A peculiar feature of the strong Satavahana administration was the presence of feudatories of different grades. The empire was marked by urban centers, royal inscriptions, and the issuance of state coins. The kingdom (janapada) was the highest political unit, and was divided into districts (aharas), and then further subdivided into villages (grámas). Khāravela in Kalinga was a Jain, but tolerant towards all religions. He constructed majestic rest houses for Jaina Sramanas, Brahmanical Rishis, and Buddhist Samghayanas.
Figure 1. Various Kingdoms of India during Golden Period
Magadhas were the first to use elephants on a large scale in wars. The famous Chola king, Karikala, built big irrigation channels along the river Kaveri. Figure 2.
Figure 2. Kallanai dam, originally constructed in 2nd century CE.
Madurāi was the port and served as the capital of the Pandya kingdom. Korkai served as the trade center. The Pandyas were wealthy and prosperous. The most important element in district administration was the governor (nagaraka) who was responsible for preserving law and order, revenue collection, street cleanliness, maintenance of troops and secret agents, prevention of fire, flood, famine, and plague.
Political system was decentralized into regions and administrative units. Kautilya’s charter (see Classical Period) was followed. Political peace was maintained through economic prosperity. Administration of justice was delegated to the king’s court. The counselor acted as King’s chief legal advisor. Punishment was imposed based on the written law. Judicial standards were set. Judges were free, impartial and honest.
Taxes were collected in moderation. A basic land tax called bhaga (share) was a fixed fraction of the crops produced, the highest being one sixth. Taxes were levied on livestock, dairy produce, pottery and textiles. Trade was taxed by export and import duties. Merchants paid road taxes. A tax officer (Antapala) collected the taxes.
Kushanas minted large quantities of gold coins (Figure 3) and low value copper coins. Satavahana empire produced coins of silver, copper, lead and potin. Coins of Graeco-Bactrians which circulated around north of Hindu Kush were made of gold, copper, silver, and nickel. Many coins were produced by non-monarchical states of Arjunayanas, Uddehikas, Malavas, and Yaudheyas. Figure 2 shows copper coins of Yaudheyas, Ayodhya, and the Kunidas.
Figure 3. Gold coins used during the reign of Kanishka II.
Figure 4. Copper coins of Yaudheyas, Ayodhya, and Kunidas
There were number of ‘city coins’ produced by many cities such as Tripuri, Varanasi, Taxila, Ujjayini etc.
Agriculture was the main occupation. Co-operative irrigation was practiced. Cattle were used for plowing fields. Crops and vegetables cultivated included: Rice, pulses, pepper, saffron, gourds, pumpkins, sugarcane. Land was distributed among individual holdings and was divided into cultivated lands for fruit groves, sugarcane plantations, grazing. New towns sprang near the coast, like in the Godavari delta, or in ports of Broach, Cochin. Road network of ‘Grand Trunk Road’ (Figure 5) played a vital role in trading activities.
Figure 5. Grand Trunk Road 200CE.
Several inscriptions across India points towards the existence of many guilds by artisans such as wood workers, painters, leather workers etc. They had relationship with Kings and were working in ordinance with the kingdom. There is evidence of guilds acting as banks. People invested money and got the interest back from guilds.
The markets of Puhar and Madurai were trading flowers, garland, aromatic powders, bangles, garments etc. There was huge maritime trade between India and other lands (Figure 6). Apart from traders many others were travelling such as students, professionals, teachers, and entertainers. Trade continued along the routes of Uttarapatha and Dakshinpatha. The economy was stable and the land was prosperous.
Figure 6. Chola marine trade route
Exported items included
Agricultural products: Grains, sugarcane, millets, spices, tamarind. Forest Products– sandalwood, rosewood, teak, medicinal herbs, ivory. Metals – Gold, Silver, Copper. Marine products - pearls, corals, conch shells. Textiles, muslin, bangles
Imported items included
Arabian horses, Chinese porcelain and silk, Roman jars, tortoise shell from Southeast Asia.
References:
1 – A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India till 1200AD – Upinder Singh
2 - The cultural heritage of India, Volume II
- Ramakrishna Mission - Institute of Culture, Calcutta
3 – A Wonder that was India – A. L. Basham 1954
4 – Kautilya – The True Founder of Economics – Balbir Singh Sihag, 2014
Figure acknowledgement:
Figure 1 - By PHGCOM - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2110032
Figure 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kallanai_Dam
Figure 3 & 4 – Book by Upinder Singh (above)
Figure 5 - Nytimes.com – Grand Trunk Road
Figure 6 - By Rajendra_map_new.png: The original uploader was Venu62 at English Wikipedia.derivative work: Gregors (talk) - Rajendra_map_new.png, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=14661123
Mr. Hardik Dixit leads the Economy and Politics track in India Discovery Center's project on "Evolution of Indian Culture: Pre-history to 1947AD". More information and updates on the project are available at https://www.facebook.com/Evolution-of-Indian-Culture-An-IDC-Project-107749391111922
Information on India Discovery Center is at https://www.indiadiscoverycenter.org
India Golden Period - 200BCE-500CE - Language And Literature
The period witnessed exceptional scholarship in Languages and literature. There were major developments in grammar, script, use and analysis of words. Among the important grammatical expositions, was the massive text by Patañjali (200BCE), containing the analysis of speech sounds – “syllables”. It was empirically discovered that the cognition of meaning occurs through a built-in “seed” in the vocal phrases, technically labelled as sphota, the “burst”. Script mimicked the oral syllables that symbolically represented sound based in “places and manner of articulation”. The symbolic visual representation through Brāhmī and Kharoṣṭhī script led to the adaptation in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pāli and Apabhraṃśa language.
Descendant of Brāhmī with variations formed Tamil-Brāhmī, Odia for Odia, Kadamba for Kannada, Bhattiprolu for Telugu and Malayalam used Brahmic script for Vatteluttu alphabets. In Devanagari, a modern form of Brāhmī: “ka” is written as क in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pāli and Apabhraṃśa; କ (Odia); க (Tamil); ಕ (Kannada); క (Telugu); and Malayalam ക(ka). Sanskrit language codification helped the codification of other languages. (Figure 1 and 2). Migration of people from one region to other and urbanization with trade helped create new words, and new ways of communications. This became the foundation of a pan-Indian literary base in process of later development to the flourishing modern Indian literature.
The language spread in India during the period is reconstructed in Figure 3. Sanskrit evolved from the Vedic literature; Odia, a refined form of Odra Magadhi and Prakrit emerged through vernacular with dominant Shauraseni-Prakrit; Pāḷi, the vernacular of Magadha and Apabhraṃśa, a deviance, became a mixed language. Southern languages, Old Tamil, Kannada, Telugu and Malayalam, descended from Proto-Dravidian language. Script enabled the recording of the pre-existing oral texts. Recorded texts facilitated disseminations of literature to regions and in educating the society.
Piṅgala (200BCE) authored a sutras style Chandaḥśāstra on Sanskrit prosody. This was a systematic enumeration of meters with fixed patterns of short and long syllables, which epitomize modern binary numeral system. The metric composition of poetry was further creatively assembled to depict human emotions and natural events through renderings in human voice. The signature is unique to India.
Nāṭyaśāstra, a handbook of dramatic art of all aspects of drama, dance, music, poetics, general aesthetics and organization of stage and auditorium, originally compiled by Bharata had prolific use during the period. Rasa, the psychological manifestation and Bhava, the expression of sentiments developed as the principles of aesthetics. (Figure 4). Poetic ornamentation (Alaṅkāra Śāstra), an art of graceful speech, earlier beginning through Ṛgveda, and was formalized through the Nāṭyaśāstra. Kālidāsa (5th century CE) perfected this in his lyrical composition, Meghadūta, using cloud as messenger to convey love. In another long epical poem, Kumārasambhavam, he portrayed romance (Śṛṅgāra rasa) as the nature of the universe.
Different regions in India developed their unique style of storytelling. Pañcatantra (200BCE-300CE), by Viṣṇuśarman, has been one of the most translated texts in the world. It is a collection of interrelated fables (Animal stories), composed in verse and prose. Puranas dealt with cosmology and were used to instill moral values by retelling legends, folklores and history as dramatic stories. The storyteller Vyasa made commentary on the text through the narration. Storytelling combined poetry, music, drama, dance and philosophy. Mahabharata, the epic, and other texts were narratively expanded through this process.
Takshashila of Gandhara(modern Pakistan) was the ancient University where students of twelve years were admitted for educational exercise in the Vedas, the Puranas, Philosophy, Military Science, Archery, Astronomy and the Natural Sciences. Nāgārjuna (150–250CE) developed the Buddhist doctrine of Intermediate mādhyamikā with tenets of ‘all is void’ śūnyavāda, ‘all is real’ sarvāstivāda and ‘idealism of the mind only’ yogācāra. The Buddhist’s Mahayana chronicle Arya-Manjushri-Mula-Kalpa in Sanskrit language chronicled history through Buddhist principles. Around 450CE, Nālandā, a Buddhist monastery, transformed itself into a renowned center of learning in Magadha (Figure 5).
Jain Sutras Agama literature composed in the Ardhamagadhi-Prakrit and the commentaries were authored by Bhadrabahu II, Devarthi, Gani, Siddhasena, and Divakara in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Kannada, and Tamil. In Tamil Tolkappiyam’s Eluttatikaram, on phoneme; Sollatikaram, on Sound; and Porulatikaram, on prosody and Thiruvalluvar’s Kural were important literature composed during this time. Vātsyāyana’s Kāmasūtra (Principles of Life and Living) was composed (200-300CE). Aesthetics and critical thinking orchestrated the synergy of the wholesomeness of life during the period.
References:
1. Majumdar RC & A D Pusalker (1951) The History and Culture of Indian People: by R.C. Majumdar, et ed. …Publisher: Bhartiya Vidya Bhawan, Mumbai, 400 007
2. Jack Goody (1987). The Interface Between the Written and the Oral. Cambridge University Press. pp. 110–124. ISBN 978-0-521-33794-6.
3. Bharata, the Nāṭyaśāstra, by: Kapila Vatsyayan, Sahitya Akademi, 1996
4. (2003) A Phonemic Code Based Scheme for Effective Processing of Indian Languages; By: Prof. R.K. Joshi, Keyur Shroff and Dr. S. P. Mudur
5. (2015) Rasa-Sāṅkhya -Connecting Rasa to Neuroscience; By: Bijoy M Misra, Prem S Nagar, Bela Kosaras, Jaspal Singh,
6. Generally available on Internet
Seminar Presentation at: https://www.indiadiscoverycenter.org/langlitmain/langlitgolden/
Mr. Prem Nagar leads the Language and Literature track in India Discovery Center project on "Evolution of Indian Culture: Pre-history to 1947AD".
More information and updates on the project are available at
https://www.facebook.com/Evolution-of-Indian-Culture-An-IDC-Project-107749391111922
Information on India Discovery Center is at
https://www.indiadiscoverycenter.org
India Golden Period (200 BCE – 500 CE) – Philosophy and Religion
There was a serious debate on the Vedic authority during this period. Classical Philosophy developed, particularly, Sānkhya, championing the concept of freedom of action. Other analytic models followed.
Philosophy
As per Sānkhya, prakṛti with its three gunas “qualities” - satva, rajas and tamas, is responsible for the actions of an individual. Multiple views result depending on the preceptor under the influence of the three gunas.
Vaisheshika puts burden of good and bad experiences, that are otherwise not explainable by substances, qualities and actions, on adṛṣṭa “unseen”.
Lokāyatas would not agree to the existence of any higher power to explain life events. Since direct perception is complete in itself to determine the existence of such an entity.
Jainas hold individuals responsible for their actions and prescribe progressively severe atonement measures for bad actions. This led to inaction for the fear of committing sinful actions impacting daily life. A technical term Karma was created as a repository of life’s activities for the migration of the jīva “soul” as manifestation in the universe.
Krishna in Bhagavadgitā extended Sānkhya philosophy by proposing concept of desireless action without caring for the fruits of the actions. According to him, a true sanyāsin “renunsciate” is the one who rejects goal-oriented actions. Any action regardless of its fruit should not be attached to the gratification of senses by observing karma-saṁnyāsa. A tyāgī, on the other hand, is one who renounces the fruits of actions altogether. As per Krishna, unattached performance of actions leads to mokṣa “liberation”.
Yogasūtra of Patanjali established the science of mind control by following aṣṭāṅga yoga “eight-fold path” methodology. It helps a practitioner to transcend from individual identity to a full cosmic realization. The Yogic practice enables an individual to go beyond the physical body consciousness by getting rid of memory collection that binds the mind to the body.
Buddhism enunciated a golden mean between the Vedic ritualism to achieve dharma, artha, kāma and mokhsa and extreme self-renunciation in Jainism. Buddhism allowed room for error in achieving goal through samyak “appropriate” action.
The theory of pratityasamutpāda “dependent origination” was created as a derivative Buddha’s teachings. There is a process of perpetual changes that have direct or indirect causes. A realized person will perceive this dependent origination.
Mid to late Golden period witnessed developments in Buddhist thought with the advent of mādhyamikā “middle way”school of thought propounded by Nagarjuna. This school takes middle path between the two extremes – eternal existence of the essence that makes up all existence and that the essence gets extinguished post-existence. As per Nagarjuna, all existence is śūnya “void” of any inherent nature. When a candle wick gets extinguished, the light is non-existent. The state of Nirvāna “liberation”can be achieved by extricating oneself from the realm of existence, and realizing śūnya.
Buddhist saṁgha “like-minded” model gave rise to social and professional guilds that operated as economic units in the society. The society was known for religious harmony and opulence.
Religion
Temple worship as is practiced in modern India had its origin during the period. Viṣṇu and Śiva were the preferred deities in the north and south. Old naturally formed pillar like formations were worshipped as a fertility symbol liṅga “phallus”. Caves were carved to create the abode of religious symbols. Buddhist and Jaina temples were scattered I the country.
River-based massive religious festivals were popular. Congregations occasionally lasted for several weeks. There was a strong astronomical input to the observance of the festivals. Social intercourse included recitations, discourses, musical presentations and dramatic presentations. Religious observance did enter into the daily living and the practice of the profession. Scriptures like dharmashāstra and manusmṛti were followed to create protocols of daily living.
Mendicants and monastics helped to educate people on the religious principle and propagating religious idea. Religious texts were scribed and copied as large-scale monastic endeavors. There was a proliferation of Buddhist and Jaina manuscripts. Scriptures of modern Hinduism were formally documented during the period.
Different religions co-existed largely peacefully. Buddhism was the state religion for most part. Masses got attracted to Buddhism. Austere Jainism did propagate to south. Various grassroot practices and belief systems among the people were integrated to form the foundation of modern Hinduism. Sectarian integration led to the social institution of “caste” which became a family-oriented privilege.
References
1. The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama –The Sacred Books of Hindus – B.D. Basu, Vijaya Press, 1913
2. The Vaisheshika Sutras of Kanada - The Sacred Books of Hindus – B.D. Basu, Vijaya Press, 1923
3. The Sankhya Aphorisms of Kapila – James Ballantyne, Trubner & Co, London, 1885
4. Yoga Sutras of Patanjali with exposition of Vyasa -Pandit Ursharbudh Arya, Pennsylvania ,1986
5. Jainism and Buddhism – Internet Archives (Archive.org)
6. Tattvarthasutra – Vijay K Jain, Vikalpa Printers, Dehardun, 2011,
7. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - https://plato.stanford.edu/
8. IDC Presentation, May 2018 https://www.indiadiscoverycenter.org/philreligionmain/philreligiongolden/
Dr. Satyendra Sharma leads the Philosophy and Religion track in India Discovery Center's project on "Evolution of Indian Culture: Pre-history to 1947AD".
More information and updates on the project are available at https://www.facebook.com/Evolution-of-Indian-Culture-An-IDC-Project-107749391111922
Information on India Discovery Center is at https://www.indiadiscoverycenter.org
The Golden Period (200BCE- 500CE) - Art And Culture
The Golden period produced some of the greatest wealth of Literature, Art and Architecture of the Indian subcontinent.
Both Bharhut and Sanchi stupas were enlarged and decorated with beautifully engraved timber railings, while others were freshly commissioned (Amaravati). Magnificent rock cut prayer halls (Chaitya Griha- enclosing a stupa) and adjacent simple living quarters (Viharas) were excavated for Buddhist and Jain monks in central and southern India. The entrance, vaulted ceilings, pillars, and stupa of the prayer halls were designed to mimic contemporary wooden architecture (buttresses, window panels, encasings) but later all surfaces were intricately carved with ornamental designs. Inscriptions at the sites note that the caves were commissioned by royalty, rich local and foreign merchants, and crowdfunded by common people. Highly skilled craftsmen’s guilds provided the stone masons, sculptors, carpenters, and painters for these commissioned projects.
Massive wealth of wood, stone and terracotta sculptural work give insight into contemporary iconography. Bharhut and Sanchi railings are heavily engraved with non-idolic representation of the Buddha (Hinayana style), Buddha’s life scenes, Mayadevi, fantastic winged apsaras and beasts, foliage designs, Ashoka’s pillars, and capitals and magnificent Yakshas and Yakshis (most recognisable and omnipresent pre-Buddhist forest deities). They were venerated as wise beings that guarded wealth (material and spiritual) and were heavily associated with various contemporary flora and fauna.
Massive amounts of terracotta plaques unearthed from Sunga areas show an unidentified fertility Goddess with 5 -10 weapons in her giant coiffure. In the Mahayana era, large scale stand-alone ‘lifelike’ sculptures of Buddha became popular. While the Gandhara school from North-west under Greco-Roman influence focused on anatomical precision (body and facial), textile detail and a ‘Somber’ expression in their Bodhisattvas on Grey- blue Schist, the central Indian Mathura school produced fleshy and lively Buddhas, Jinas, Yakshis and Hindu gods and goddesses from characteristic red sandstone. Rock cut caves with Hindu iconography (Udaygiri), stand-alone Hindu temples in stone (Deogarh) and burnt brick (Bhitargaon) are first observed during the Guptas.
The Ajanta caves also serve as a prime example of the magnificent dry-mural paintings produced during this period. Various episodes from the Jataka Tales and portraits of Buddha are painted in massive canvases, with the whole story narrated in a single frame with different scenes blending into each other. The highly animated characters are painted in various poses of activity and varied skin tonality, wearing brightly coloured costumes and shimmering gold jewelry. Their theatrical presentation corroborates the importance of drama and theatre to contemporary society, as supported by production of a large number of excellent Sanskrit plays during the period. The Natyashastra (pan-Indian contemporary dramatic treatise) speaks of highly technical classical dance forms, musical instruments, and vocal compositions. Skilled dancers and musicians are abundant on the Ajanta murals, Bharhut railings and the Sanskrit plays. Tamil Sangam literature (including ‘Silappadikaram' and ‘Manimekalai’ - both involving celebrated dancers) belong to this period. The renowned Sanskrit poet and playwright Kalidasa’s in his ‘Meghaduta’ chooses a Yaksha as his protagonist and describes the geographical route between Ramgiri (current Nagpur) to Alakapuri (near Mount Kailash in the Himalayas), mentioning the important cities along the way.
Excavations have unearthed numerous well-planned towns all over India with elaborate fortifications, defense walls, well planned streets, permanent mud brick houses, pillared halls, open courtyards, drains, granaries, terracotta ring wells, stupas, shrines, apsidal temples, and elaborate brick tanks. Luxury household items of wood, ivory, terracotta, bone, glass, gold and semi-precious gems, and fine pottery of delicately painted and stamped red and grey ware and Black slipped ware depicting numerous scenes of general life are abundant. Sanchi friezes show multi storied and high vaulted buildings with large open windows covered with heavy drapery. Kalidasa mentions Chinese silk and Silappadikaram mentions Madurai cloth merchants selling cotton, animal wool and silk clothing. Ajanta paintings and Sunga terracotta plaques show both stitched and unstitched garments, printed designs and fine embroidery, while dancers and royalty wear pearls, precious gems, heavy golden jewelry, and massive hairpins in elaborate coiffures.
The archeological and literary sources all bespeak a bustling sophisticated city-based society, with abundantly wealthy trading and ruling classes supporting unhindered development of art and culture.
Supplementary Reference Lists:
Dynasties supporting major Architecture and Art Commissions:
Sanchi and Bharhut Stupa - Maurya, Sunga, Satavahana
Ajanta - Satavahana, Vakataka, Gupta
Udaygiri and Khandagiri caves- Kharavela
Udaygiri caves (Vidisha)- Gupta
Major Stupas: Bharhut, Sanchi, Amaravati
Imp cave clusters: Buddhist - Bhaja, Karle, Ajanta, Pandavleni (Maharashtra); Jain - Sittanavasal (TN), Udaygiri-Khandagiri (Odisha); Hindu - Udaygiri (Vidisha MP)
Early Hindu structures - Vasudev temple complex (Vidisha/Besnagar), Heliodorus’s Garuda Pillar at Vidisha Vasudev Temple complex, Dasavatara Temple (Deogarh, UP), Bhitargaon Temple (UP)
Buddha non-idolic iconography - Stupa, throne, bodhi tree, dhammachakra, foot, lotus etc
Hindu iconography- Vishnu avataras (Samkarshana, Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Rama), Shivalinga, Shakti, Ganesha, Kartikeya, Surya, Indra, Samudra, Brahma, Ganga (with Makara (crocodile)), Yamuna (with Kurma (tortoise)
Foreign merchants - Yavanas (Greeks), Pallavas (Parthians), Shakas (Scythians)
Sanskrit playwrights (Major work) - Bhasa (4th cent BC) (Swapnavasavdattam), Ashwaghosha (Buddhacharita), Sudraka (Mrichhakatikam), Vishakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa), Kalidasa (Abhijnanashakuntalam)
Topics of the Natyashastra - Types of Drama, Playwriting, Characters of a play, Dance, Music, Instruments (Metal, Wind, Strings, Percussion), Acting, Direction, Stagecraft, Costume design etc
Ajanta Musicians play - lutes, flutes, cymbals, and drums.
Excavated towns - Pushkalavati, Sirkap (Taxila), Hastinapur, Mathura, Sringaverapura, Sravasthi, Kaushambi, Ujjaini, Vidisha, Vaishali, Mahasthangarh etc
City coins - Tripuri, Ujjain, Kaushambi, Vidisha, Mahishmati, Madhyamika, Varanasi, Taxila.
Grains recovered- Cereals (rice, barley, wheat), Pulses (Chickpeas, lentil, grass pea, black gram), Oil seeds (field brassica, sesame), Spices (Fenugreek, coriander, cumin, black pepper), Fruits (date, custard apple, walnut, almond, jamun)
Fiber crops – Cotton, Dye - Henna
Scenes from life on pottery - hunting, fishing, bathing, bridal parties, weaving, women dressing, kitchen activities, hermits at their hermitage, boats, chariots, palanquins, armory, horses, elephants etc
Luxury items - wood and ivory (mirror, dice, combs), terracotta (votive tanks, crucibles, bangles, pottery), bone, glass, gold, and semi-precious gems (jewelry, decorative items, crockery)
Main jewelry - waist girdles, anklets and armlets, ear ornaments
References:
1. A History of Ancient and Medieval India. Upinder Singh. 2018 impression.
2. The Wonder that was India. A.L. Basham. 3rd edition.
3. The Civilisation of India. R.C. Dutt.1995
4. INDIA. An Archeological History. Paleolithic History to Early Historic Foundations. D.K, Chakrovarty. 2nd Edition.
6. The archeology of early historic South Asia. F.R Allchen. 1995.
7. Ancient Indian and Indo-Greek theatre. M L Varadpande. 1981
8. Shilpe Bharat o Bohirbharat (Bengali). Manindrabhushan Gupta. 1995.
9. A Cultural History of India. A.L. Basham. 1975
10. Foreign Influence on Ancient India. K.C. Sagar. 1992.
11.https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/iconography-buddhist-iconography
12. https://www.indiadiscoverycenter.org/ac/acgolden/
Picture References:
https://scroll.in/article/807101/forget-the-kohinoor-could-we-have-the-amaravati-stupa-sculptures-back-please
https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/photos/bhaja-caves-entrance/14298
https://www.sensesatlas.com/territory/architecture/rock-cut-architecture-of-india-the-ajanta-caves/
http://www.indian-heritage.org/painting/ajanta/ajanta10.html
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/south-asia/x97ec695a:1000-b-c-e-500ce-indo-gangetic-plain/a/a-buddha-from-mathura
https://www.classicalclaps.com/natya-shastra-an-overview/
https://twitter.com/monidipadey/status/1358068523625377792/photo/1
Dr. Krishnakali Dasgupta leads the Art and Culture track in India Discovery Center's project on "Evolution of Indian Culture: Pre-history to 1947AD"
More information and updates on the project are available at
https://www.facebook.com/Evolution-of-Indian-Culture-An-IDC-Project-107749391111922
More information on India Discovery Center is available at https://www.indiadiscoverycenter.org
India Golden Period (200BCE-500CE) - Science And Technology
India Golden Period (200BCE-500CE) Science and Technology
Science and technology continued to flourish with more analytic tools in mathematics and geometry, and more technological innovations in metallurgy, construction engineering, dyes and textiles. There were sustained efforts in accurate sky observations for astronomical predictions. Various schools of cosmology developed through university work and religious speculations. One of the foremost among these models to be analyzed was the conjecture by Vardhamana Mahavira of the earlier period on the span of the universe. It was proposed that the universe composed of a bounded visible sphere surrounded by an unlimited dark space. By containing the universe, various numerical procedures were formulated to measure the spread and count the number of objects. This led to the arithmetic of large numbers and tools of algebraic manipulations. Various layers of “infinity” were proposed for mathematical closures.
Figure 1. Palm Leaf manuscripts (2nd century CE)
Direct astronomical observations got refined with better time measurement using solar clocks and water clocks. Projection of spherical arcs to linear distance gave rise to the development of sine functions and trigonometric calculations. Theory of residues, theory of fractions and number theory took independent paths of applications development in astronomy. Decimal numbers were formulated, but we don’t see any script for the decimal numerals. The numbers were scribed in coded form taking reference to standard Indian alphabet ordering. The astronomical sciences peaked in the 5th century CE with Aryabhatta who deduced the westward rotation of the earth from the night sky observations.
Figure 2. Aryabhatta, the Astronomer (5th century CE)
Perception sciences developed through the experiments in literature and got formalized in musicology. A perceptive unit called shruti was coded, with twenty-two shrutis covering the seven notes. The melody of the vocal music was ascribed to the shrutis, the acoustic expression of the voice depending on the production of sound. The sentence structure of the music was analyzed for rhythm and tone in order to express emotion. Various string, wind and percussion instruments are referred to in the literature. The logic of aesthetics in music did influence the textiles and the ornamentation for artistic rendition of perceptual beauty. The visual aesthetics is seen in the architectural proportions, use of dyes and pigments in frescoes, and in pottery.
Figure 3. Musical instruments in Ajanta fresco (3rd century CE)
Research of perception led to scientific analysis of mind with the development of yoga as a discipline of study. Cosmological speculation on the asymptotic nature of truth led to various theories of logic and rhetoric. This found its way for analytic examination of human speech and the role of grammar in expressing thoughts. Grammar did play a major role in technological innovations in formulating structured processes, particularly in health sciences. Rigid routines of health and hygiene developed to maintain health and virility. Aesthetics did transfer to human appearance and general living. More detailed material innovations metallurgy and construction followed. A four and half feet circular cylindrical twenty four feet high rust-free iron pillar in Delhi declares the industry of disciplined fabrication.
Figure 4. Rust-free Iron Pillar in Delhi (4th century CE)
Massive caves were cut from the mountains. The Buddhist caves in Ajanta and Ellora were carved for religious sanctuaries and habitation of the monks. The Jaina caves in Khandagiri and Udayagiri were used as royal palaces and theaters. Textile technology advanced and fine silk products were manufactured and were exported. Marine navigation was formalized and the sea traffic was common between India, the Far East and the Arab countries. Metal tools helped develop agriculture technology and irrigation. Metal alloys, gem inlays and ivory crafts developed and much of the products found market worldwide.
Figure 5. Palace caves in Khandagiri (1st century BCE)
Herbal medicine and chemistry of plant extracts were a large part of scientific research. Discovery of forest products and wild herbs for treatment were among the major professions. Empirical knowledge of climate, soil conditions, ground water and elevation were connected to herbs. Domestication was discouraged to claim potency from the natural environments. The flesh and blood of animals were experimented as medicinal products and were prescribed for the treatment of difficult diseases.
Figure 6. Medicinal herbs and spices (4th century CE)
References:
1. The Cultural Heritage of India, Volume VI, Science and Technology, The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta, 1937, reprinted 1986.
2. History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century – Upinder Singh, Pearson Education, Delhi, 2009.
3. Carakasaṁhitā (चरकसंहिता) by Charaka – Text with translation – Ram Karan Sharma, Vidya Bhagwan Das, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, 2013, Varanasi, India.
4. Tattvārthasūtra (तत्त्वार्थसूत्र) by Umāsvāmī - https://archive.org/details/tattvarthbook10webf
5. āryabhaṭiyaṁ (आर्यभटियम्) by Aryabhatta- https://archive.org/details/Aryabhatiya1976
6. A Concise History of Science in India – Edited by D.M.Bose, S.N.Sen, B.V. Subbarayappa, Orient Black Swan, 2009.
7. IDC Presentation Spring 2018 - https://www.indiadiscoverycenter.org/scitech/scitechgolden/
Dr. Bijoy Misra serves as the President of India Discovery Center and leads the Science and Technology track in the project on "Evolution of Indian Culture: Pre-history to 1947AD"
More information and updates on the project are available at https://www.facebook.com/Evolution-of-Indian-Culture-An-IDC-Project-107749391111922
More information on India Discovery Center is available at https://www.indiadiscoverycenter.org
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